I: Short arguments : some general rules. Identify premises and conclusion ; Develop your ideas in a natural order ; Start from reliable premises ; Be concrete and concise ; Build on substance, not overtone ; Use consistent terms -- II: Generalizations. Use more than one example ; Use representative examples ; Background rates may be crucial ; Statistics need a critical eye ; Consider counterexamples --III: Arguments by analogy. Analogies require relevantly similar examples -- IV: Sources. Cite your sources ; Seek informed sources ; Seek impartial sources ; Cross-check sources ; Use the Web with care -- V: Arguments about causes. Causal arguments start with correlations ; Correlations may have alternative explanations ; Work toward the most likely explanation ; Expect complexity -- VI: Deductive arguments. Modus ponens ; Modus tollens ; Hypothetical syllogism ; Disjunctive syllogism ; Dilemma ; Reductio ad absurdum ; Deductive arguments in several steps -- VII: Extended arguments. Explore the issue ; Spell out basic ideas as arguments ; Defend basic premises with arguments of their own ; Consider objections ; Consider alternatives -- VIII: Argumentative essays. Jump right in ; Make a definite claim or proposal ; Your argument is your outline ; Detail objections and meet them ; Get feedback and use it ; Modesty, please! -- IX: Oral arguments. Reach out to your audience ; Be fully present ; Signpost your argument ; Offer something positive ; Use visual aids sparingly ; End in style -- Appendix I: Some common fallacies -- Appendix II: Definitions. When terms are unclear, get specific ; When terms are contested, work from the clear cases ; Definitions don't replace arguments

1. Reasoning
2. Logic
3. English language -- Rhetoric